Is Heterosexuality Socially Constructed?

Is Heterosexuality Socially Constructed? ‘Heterosexuality is socially constructed. Discuss Not only heterosexuality, but the very word, has changed in the way it is understood. I begin this essay with a clarification of terms, discussing what is understood by sexuality and gender and the implications of constructivist views. From this it is natural to move on to a discussion of labelling theory, of the effects of heteronormativity and of homovisibility, noting Foucaults recognition of positive implications in terms of difference. Finally, I consider how arguments against heteronormativity might be answered, in part, by Foucault. Constructionists hold human behaviour is socially constructed, by the environment in which people live. They do not consider human behaviour to be innate or immutable, as they believe human behaviour is shaped by their social context throughout their lives. They hold that sexuality is also socially constructed and sexual behaviour to be a product of socio-cultural conditioning. Sexual meanings are not universal absolutes, but are subject to historical and cultural variation. (DeLamater, Hyde, 1998, p.16) Constructionists regard the meaning of a sexual act as dependent solely on the cultural, historically specific context in which it occurs; they believe that sexuality is expressed in many different forms across a variety of different cultures in many countries. A sexual act in one country might not be construed as sexual in another. (Weeks, 1991. p. 20) This is evident in the anthropological study of a tribe in New Guinea. It is part of this tribes cultural belief that masculinity can be transmitted by insemination of semen to a young boy, either anally or orally, by an older male. (Herdt, 1984 p.165) In western society this could be perceived as a homosexual act, or, for essentialists, used as evidence of universality. But for constructionists this behaviour cannot be generalised to the larger population; constructionists suggest that labelling these acts as homosexual is incorrect as the tribe do not apply the same meaning to these acts as in western culture: to impose the same understanding as in the west would be ethnocentric. (Gergen, K. 1999. p. 26) Social constructionists want to chart ways that the meanings of sexual desires shift throughout history. Social constructionists regard sexual desire as contingent, not biologically determined as viewed by essentialists. (Warner, 1993 p.45) Michel Foucault (1981) works analyzed the history of sexuality from ancient Greece to the modern era. Foucault articulated how profoundly understandings of sexuality can vary across time and space. This is demonstrated by how the prevalence of what we now term heterosexuality has varied over the centuries and also from culture to culture. This is discussed by Foucault, who also notes that, although sexual behaviours in ancient societies resemble what we today see as homosexual/ heterosexual behaviour, the terms are not congruent with ancient societies. For example the ancient Greeks did not have terms or concepts that correspond to the contemporary dichotomy of ‘heterosexual and ‘homosexual therefore to this different historical context the modern terminology cannot be accurately applied. (Foucault, 1981, p.89) Constructionists aim to gain a deeper understanding of sexual phenomena and are not primarily interested in the first cause of sexual orientation: they look at understanding the ways in which differences in sexual behaviour are ‘produced by social processes in a particular social context. Constructionists aim to understand how we express and organise sexuality and why labels of difference in specific areas have been invented in some cultures and not others; why a particular culture accepts one form of sexual expression and not another; and how heteronormativity has come to dominate modern western society. (DeLamater, Hyde, 1998, p.10) These important questions I will investigate in my essay. Constructionists can identify many historical contexts where individuals have engaged in same-sex relations, but it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that terminology labelled categories of sexual acts as specifically either heterosexual or homosexual. They suggest, therefore, that these terms contributed to the construction of sexuality in the western modern era. (Katz, 1995, p.45) Ned Katz is an important figure in the sexuality studies and he supports the constructionists argument. In The Invention of Heterosexuality (1995) he looks at how the meaning of the term heterosexuality changes throughout time. Katz notes that the term heterosexuality (Heterosexualità ¤t) was first used in 1868 by German-Hungarian journalist, Karl Maria Kertbeny, not long after the term homosexuality was coined by Karl Heinrich Ulrichs. Heterosexuality made its first published appearance in English in a medical publication in 1869. (Katz, 1995, p.40) At first, the term heterosexuality was not used as homosexuals binary opposite but was used to describe abnormal manifestations of the sexual appetite, either same sex or opposite sex, which did not conform to social norms that held that sex was for procreation. At one time the term ‘sodomite had a similar meaning, this term was applied to people engaged in specific non-procreative sex acts, and related to the activity rather than their holistic sexual identity. (Katz, 1995, p.45) This distinction between the activity performed by someone who, among many other things, does that (a baker bakes, and a sodomite sodomises) and a person defined in a particular way regardless of activity (a woman, a Jew) is now largely lost in contemporary use of gender labels, which now seem inescapable. Furthermore Katz suggests that in the 1920s the term was revisited in the second edition of the publication: ‘heterosexuality was then used to describe a manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality. (Katz, 1995, p.42) This term became well established and was used by Freud to describe normal sexuality. However this adaptation, used by scientists and physicians, signifies the start of heteronormativity as it suggests that sexual passion for the opposite sex was normal, healthy and superior influencing the rise of what Rich terms compulsory heterosexuality. (1994, p.45) Creating this distinction between normal and abnormal sexual preferences encouraged scientists and physicians to seek cures for those considered abnormal, thus compromising the liberty of the segregated and aggrandising the professional who diagnosed deviance. (Rivkin and Ryan: 1998, p.670) This was supported by Foucault, who writes that â€Å"it was this categorisation of homose xuality that first exposed the hitherto unfettered and unmonitored human sexual desire to scientific scrutiny and classification† (Rivkin and Ryan, 1998, p.677). Katz suggests that If homosexuals were to win society-wide equality with heterosexuals, thered be no reason to distinguish them. (Katz, 1995, p.52) Furthermore, he holds that if homosexuals and hetrosexual do win society- wide equality [†¦] the homosexual/heterosexual distinction would be retired from use, just as it was once invented. (Katz, 1995, p.52) The term heteronormativity was coined by Michael Warner, to contest the elemental form of human association (Warner, 1993, p.21). This term describes how society has been dominated by heteronormative behaviour through the prevalence of ‘compulsory heterosexuality. Warner suggests that heterosexuality has become an institutionalised form of normative social practice. (p.22) Heteronormativity describes the dominating societal norms that shape individuals behaviour, pressuring the individual to conform to accepted cultural forms. This suggests some discomfort and constraint, finely distinguished from Foucaults suggestion that â€Å"the individual is not repressed by social order; the individual is in fact formed by it (Foucault: 1981, p.217). Heteronormativity has consequences for that minority who do not comply with normative society, for example homosexual, bisexual, transsexual, and intersexual people; individuals who deviate from atypical accepted heteronormativity are liable to heterosexism as they face prejudice and discrimination by some in the conforming proportion majority. (Warner, 1993, p.23) Heteronormativity has been reinforced by religious beliefs, partly through the prevalence of Christianity in western culture. The major western faiths reject homosexuality and elevated heterosexuality as the only accepted sexual preference. Although there have been disagreements on interpretation of the bible, the influence of institutional faith has largely underpinned heteronormativity. (Warner, 1993, p.27) Heteronormativity is demonstrated at the moment of birth: individuals are quickly assigned to a sex category dependent on their sexual organs and therefore expected to conform to social gender roles. The power and dominance of heteronormativity is apparent when intersexual babies, with both male and female sex organs, are born. Intersexuals do not conform to normal categories and this deviance generates such anxiety that some intersex babies have surgery shortly after birth to assign their sexual organs and their gender to either a male or female sex category obviously without their consent. (Dreger, 1998, p.45) This demonstrates the extent in which heteronormativity has come to dominate modern western society. This type of operation has been reported to cause problems with sexual pleasure in later life. This begs the question, is conforming to heteronormativity necessary if it conflicts with personal preference or if it has negative implications for the individual? Hetronormativity can be challenged by increaseing homovisability, Societal visability of gay couples, gay teachers, or even open conversation about homosexuality can reduce the dominance of hetronormativity (Dreger, 1998, p.44) Judith Butler (1991) challenges heteronormative views in her publication Imitation and Gender through challenging binary sexual (and gender) categories, thus demoting heterosexualitys dominance, reducing its normative power by increasing homovisibility and awareness of alternative sexual orientation, which in turn makes alternative sexual preferences more socially acceptable. She holds that sexual identities and desires are constantly changing: sexual expression is intertwined with societal power relations. (p.727) For example, in ancient Greece, in determining sexual preference the gender of a partner was less significant than whether or not someone took the active or passive role in sexual relations. This demostrates how power relations are intertwined into sexuality. Similar influences are also at work in contemporary stereotypes as womon are frequently portrayed as the passive sexual partner and men the active partner, however this perception is changing. (Dover, 1989. p.89). Butler suggests that hetronormativity is reinforced through socio-cultural conditioning and also via the transmitting of visual culture which promotes hetero-visability and homo-invisability. This notion is supported by Richard Dyer (1993), who holds that contemporary cinema plays a vital role in maintaining heteronormativity (p.726) Butler also investigates gender categories, and the implications categories of difference have on gender identity and gender roles. Butler argues that men and woman are essentially the same apart from different organization of sexual organs and, as a feminist; she defends individuals rights to equality. Foucault would support this as he would argue that our habit of categorising the world in a ‘gendered way is itself a social construction. He states that when you view the world through the lens of gender differences, gender differences will be found. (McNay, 1992, p.121) Butler (1991) believes that gender like sexuality is socially constructed. She suggests that gender is not something we are, but something we do. She holds that individuals play out a role that is socially enforced upon them through social conditioning. Gender roles assigned at birth are based on individuals biological sex; this gender role is played throughout individuals lives. (p.720) Furthermore, Butler like Katz, holds that heteronormativity could not exist without the categorisation made by terms of difference and therefore questions the whole purpose of their invention. (p.723) While the theories already discussed recognise the power of categorisation and a norm Foucault is more explicit about the political effects of consciousness. Foucault, in History of Sexuality (1981), challenged essentialist assumptions, and his ideas have been important in the constructionist approach to sexuality. Foucault suggests that the way that individuals are categorised by difference is part of a larger social discourse that is representative of the power relationships within society. Foucault holds that these power relations are constantly changing depending on historical and cultural context and that there are also positive implications to the generation of terms of difference. These terms can provide recognition and power to people otherwise invisible, and provide leverage for visibility, a source of pride and political power in order to fight for their right to equality. He suggests that segregating homosexuals in this way heightens homo-visibility, and homosexuals feel p art of a collective who can create their own subcultures, fighting the dominance of heteronormativity. (p.67) Increased homovisability can be demonstrated by the gay liberation movement in the Stonewall protests, and the extent of popular support for the London Lighthouse. All constructivists hold that heterosexuality is socially constructed: indeed, all behaviour is product of socio-cultural conditioning. Similarly, all hold that heterosexually is a social construct that is culturally and historical dependent on the social context in which the term is used. Ned Katz, in particular, looks at the evolution of the term heterosexual and demonstrates the way the meaning of the term has changed throughout time, supporting the constructivists claim that sexuality is historically and culturally contingent. (Katz, 1995, p.52) With such consensus, what evidence is there to the contrary? Firstly, essentialists suggest that homosexual and heterosexual acts are historically consistent. This argument seems to be supported by Darwins evolutionary theory that holds heterosexuality is essential for reproduction and the continuation of the species, and that there is regularity and consistency in some patterns of sexual behaviour, displayed across space and time. This might seem a strong criticism of the constructionist position as it suggests that sexuality is rooted in our biological nature rather than a product of social conditioning. Secondly, another question that must be asked of constructionists is that, if those who are considered deviant face heterosexism and discrimination, why would they choose to come out and face the negative implications of a homophobic society? Also, the constructionist suggestion that all behaviour is a product of social conditioning can also be questioned, as it fails to explain why transexuals seek gender reasignment. Finally, the construct ionist argument cannot account for those who generally believe that they are born with the biological sex organs that do not correspond with their psychological sex. Paradoxically, perhaps Foucault provides an answer to the final two questions as, although he agrees the terms heterosexual and homosexual are of modern construction and therefore cannot be used to describe same sex or opposite sexual relations that have existed before the modern era, he also suggests that labels of difference have positive implications for the segregated: a shared label is a collective identity, providing them with the public visibility need to fight for equality. People might suffer prejudice, but the reality of their experience is recognised and endorsed by the labels of difference. Bibliography Berger, P, Luckmann, T (1966) The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and theSubversion of Identity. New York: Routledge. Butler, Judith (1991) ‘Imitation and Gender Insubordination, Literary Theory: An Anthology, Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan (Eds) London, Blackwell Publishing, 1998 Clausen, J (1996) Beyond Gay or Straight: Understanding Sexual Orientation, Chelsea: House Publishers. DeLamater, JD, Hyde, JS (1998), Essentialism vs. social constructionism in the study of human sexuality, Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 35 p.16 Dover, KJ (1978, 1989) Greek Homosexuality. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dreger, AD (1998) Hermaphrodites and the Medical Invention of Sex, Cambridge, (MA): Harvard University Press Dyer, Richard (1993) The Matter of Images, London: Routledge Foucault, M (1981) The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction, London, Pelican. Gergen, Kenneth J (1999). An invitation to social construction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Halwani, R (1998) Essentialism, Social Constructionism, and the History of Homosexuality, Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 35. p.89 Herdt, G (1984). Rituals of manhood: Male initiation in New Guinea. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Herdt, G (1993) Mistaken sex: Culture, Biology and the Third Sex in New Guinea. In: Gilbert Herdt (ed.), Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and in History, New York: Zone Books Katz, Jonathan Ned (1995) The Invention of Heterosexuality. New York, NY: Dutton (Penguin Books). Laqueur, T (1990) Making Sex: Body and Gender from the Greeks to Freud. Cambridge, (MA): Harvard University Press McNay, L (1992) Foucault and Feminism: Power, Gender and the Self, Cambridge, Polity Press. Plummer, Ken (1995) Telling Sexual Stories: Power, Change and Social Worlds: London Rich, Adrienne (1994) Compulsory heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence Blood, Bread, and Poetry. Norton Paperback: New York 1994 Richardson, Diane (1996) Theorising Heterosexuality: Telling it Straight, Buckingham: Open University Press Rivkin, Julie and Ryan, Michael (1998) (Eds) Literary Theory: An Anthology, Julie Rivkin and Michael Ryan (Eds) London, Blackwell Publishing, 1998 Warner, Michael (1993), Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press Weeks, Jeffrey (1991), Against Nature, London: Rivers Oram Press Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Causes, Symptoms and Treatment Introduction Fetal alcohol syndrome is a set of birth defects caused by maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy. The occurrence of FAS varies from 0.5 to 3.0 per 1,000 live births. However, it can be much higher depending on the community; low socioeconomic status and race seem to be a contributing factor in those who are most at risk. (play therapy) The prevalence of FAS is thought to be underestimated for several reasons. This includes the physical features are often understated and difficult to recognize, a lack of clinical expertise, and the stigma that comes with maternal alcohol use. So not only do these mothers report their alcohol use less, clinicians may also be reluctant to ask women about their alcohol use (Jones). Fetal alcohol syndrome is the leading nonhereditary cause of mental retardation and specific facial abnormalities and altered growth. (Prenatal exposure to alcohol, 2000). Not all children who are exposed to alcohol get FAS. This suggests that there must be a critical does of alcohol and a sensitive period in the development of the fetus. Description The effects of exposure to alcohol are referred to as fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. This includes full-blown fetal alcohol syndrome, partial fetal alcohol syndrome, alcohol-related neurodevelopmental disorder, and alcohol-related birth defects (Landgraf et al. 2013). â€Å"The amount of maternal alcohol consumption, the timing of consumption, and the duration all affect which level of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder a child is placed under† (Batshaw et al. 2013). Alcohol consumption in the first two months leads to more adverse affects on the fetus. Alcohol also negatively affects the fetus in certain ways in each trimester. In the first trimester brain cells are affected. In the second trimester the facial features are affected. Finally, in the third the hippocampus in the brain is affected. (play therapy)This is due to how much development still needs to occur and can be affected by the alcohol. A mother’s age may also have a play in whether FAS occurs. According t o O’Leary â€Å" the risk of impairment in offspring of women drinking five or more drinks per occasion at least weekly, is increased by 2-5 times when the mother is 30 years of age or older.† Alcohol crosses the placenta during pregnancy so it is known that they main reason for FAS is maternal alcohol consumption. However, paternal alcohol consumption may also pass on effects to the fetus from the sperm. History Fetal Alcohol syndrome was first reported in the United States in 1973. Eleven unrelated children, whose mothers continued to drink heavily during pregnancy, had similar patterns of growth deficiency and morphogenesis. After these reports, it was found that this connection was not a new observation. A committee to study drunkenness was formed in the 18th century of individuals in the British House of Commons. Their results were that infants born to alcoholic women had a â€Å"starved, shriveled, and imperfect look.† (Jones et al. 2010). Then in 1899, a doctor studied infants of alcoholic females. He recognized an increased frequency of early fetal and infant death in the infants. However, despite troublesome indications the medical community continued to disregard the issue. In the case in 1973, Dr. David Smith was asked by Dr. Shirley Anderson to come down to look at eight children who had been born to alcoholic mothers. These children came to the Pediatric Outpatient Clinic at the King County Hospital due to Dr. Christie Ulleland’s interest in the area. One night, she was informed that an alcoholic woman was about to give birth so she went to find out everything she could about the effects of alcohol on fetal development and found that there was no information available (Jones et al. 2010). So she decided to learn everything she could about the topic. Over the next year she found eleven infants who had been born to alcoholic women. She then turned the children to the care of Dr. Anderson when another opportunity presented itself. Dr. Anderson then invited eight of those children to the outpatient clinic for the evaluation with Dr. Smith. As each child was examined a â€Å"specific pattern of malformations that included: microcephaly, short, pal pebral fissures, and a smooth philtrum† was noticed in half of the children (Jones et al. 2010). Soon after Dr. Smith’s â€Å"unknown files† were searched for, for the same three features. These files consisted of â€Å"hundreds of children with birth defects whom he had evaluated but had been unable to diagnose† (Jones et al. 2010). Two children were found to have the same features so their mother’s charts were studied and it was revealed that both children had been born to alcoholic women. As time went on more children were identified with the same features all to mother’s who were alcoholics. Since the initial findings it has been found that exposure to alcohol in the womb may produce a broad spectrum of defects which is now known as the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder. (Jones et al. 2010). Diagnosis There are many key features of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; these can be grouped by growth retardation, characteristic facial features, and central nervous system abnormalities and dysfunction, structural or functional (O’Leary et al. 2004). These categories are used for in the diagnosis of a patient with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. The patient must have at least one growth abnormality, all three characteristic facial features, and one functional or structural abnormality or the Central Nervous System (Landgraf et al. 2013). Liles states that â€Å"prenatal and postnatal deficiencies in height, weight, head circumference, brain growth, and brain size would all be included under growth retardation. A deficiency in height and weight is considered at or below the 10th percentile and head circumference is considered when below the third percentile.† According to Landgraf et al. (2013), the diagnosis of growth disturbances excludes â€Å"familial microsomia, constitutional developme ntal retardation, prenatal deficiency states, skeletal dysplasia, hormonal disorders, genetic syndromes, chronic diseases, malabsorption, malnutrition, and neglect.† The characteristic facial abnormalities that are used in diagnosis of FAS include a smooth philtrum (the groove between the upper lip and nose), short palpebral fissure length (shortened openings between the eyelids), and thin vermillion (the upper lip) (PLAY THERAPY). Functional impairments in the Central Nervous System are considered intellectual deficits when below the third or the 16th percentile in three of six areas: â€Å"cognitive or developmental abnormalities, insufficient executive functioning skills, motor functioning delays, inattention or hyperactivity, deficient social skills, or sensory, pragmatic language, or memory problems.† (Play therapy) Symptoms Along with the criteria for diagnosis, children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome have many other symptoms. Spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome have all been found to relate to alcohol exposure in infants. Spontaneous abortion is defined as fetal loss prior to 20 weeks of gestation. The reason for the death is usually unknown but certain risk factors are found in some cases. Evidence found, as early as 1980, suggested that drinking during pregnancy was associated with an increased rate of spontaneous abortion. Studies have been done that suggest that the risk is not increased unless at least three drinks per week are consumed. Stillbirth is when fetal loss occurs after 20 weeks of gestation. (PRENATAL EXPOSURE) Originally, studies suggested that an intake of 14 or more drinks per week was associated with stillbirth. Later a study found that more than five drinks per week could lead to a three times increased risk of stillbirth. Another study fo und a 40 percent increase in the possibility of stillbirth for women who consumed any amount of alcohol compared with those who did not. Exposure to alcohol also shown to be associated â€Å"placental dysfunction decreased placental size, impaired blood flow and nutrient transport, and endocrine changes.† (PRENATAL EXPOSURE) All which could result in stillbirth. Preterm birth is delivery occurring before 37 weeks of gestation. Researchers found it difficult to study the trend between preterm birth and maternal alcohol due to small sample sizes, insufficient assessment of alcohol exposure, and unreliable gestational date among other factors. However, some studies have been completed and one found that 10 or more drink per week may lead to three times increased risk for preterm delivery. There is no known reason why Sudden Infant Death Syndrome occurs. However, there are many theorized reasons including prenatal alcohol exposure. Although studies have been done, they are not reliable due to small sample sizes. (STILLBORN) According to Batshaw (2013) imaging studies found a decrease in brain volume and abnormalities of the corpus callosum, basal ganglia, and other brain structures. The death of certain cells may be responsible for a small size of the cerebellum. The corpus callosum sometimes fails to even develop in something children with FAS. Autopsies of brains also included malformations of the gray and white matter regions of brain tissue and failure of cells to migrate during brain development to the correct position. An infant’s cry is another characteristic which can be affected by exposure to alcohol. Research has found that the intensity, time between a stimulus and infant’s cry, and the pitch of the cry are significantly different in children who were exposed to alcohol than those who were not (PRENATAL EXPSOURE TO ALC). The infants may also have a weak sucking response. Children with FAS may have delayed intellectual development, neurological abnormalities, vision, hearing, and balance problems. These children also may have â€Å"heart and limb problems, sleep disturbances, jitteriness, trembling, heart disease, spina bifida, renal, orthopedic, dermatologic, connective tissue, and respiratory problems, as well as bedwetting, voluntary or involuntary passing of stools, tremors, seizures, echolalia, and schizophrenia.† (play therapy) Long Term Implications Many long term implications have been identified that affect children born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Many have oversensitivity to stimuli such as bright lights or sounds, certain smells, and even certain textures. Exposure to ethanol can also lead to ADHD and executive functioning deficits (Batshaw et al. 2013). A study has shown that 85 percent of children diagnosed with FAS also are diagnosed with ADHD (Liles). Organizing, sequencing, planning, and certain forms of abstract thinking are all tasks that are included in executive functioning. Those with problems in executive functioning are unable to be independent because they are unable to do daily tasks like getting dressed. Other long term implications include motor control. Most parents start seeing a delay in fine and gross motor skills by 12-13 months of age. Motor control is influence by the Central Nervous System. There are many functions that are involved in the CNS. The sensory organs including ears, eyes, and skin provi de feedback to the CNS, motor reactions and balance may be affected due to problems located in the inner ear (Prenatal exposure to alc). Communication delays including receptive and expressive language and hearing disorders are often common in children with FAS. Hearing disorders in children with FAS include auditory maturation, sensorineural hearing loss, and intermittent conductive hearing loss (o’leary). Children with FAS also have a wide range of behavior and developmental abnormalities. These children may be antisocial and one third of children exposed to alcohol prenatally show significant aggressive behavior. (O’Leary) Since these children experience social issues, it may result in an increased likelihood of depression, suicidal ideology, anxiety and panic attacks, and other various psychiatric disorders (Liles). With problems in communication, executive functioning, and social issues, among others, these children often experience lower cognitive ability. Many studies done show a high possibility for children with FAS have IQs that would place them in the category of mental retardation, an IQ lower than 70. They also have problems in â€Å"spelling, mathematics, and completion of carious classroom tasks.† (Liles) These individuals are more likely to drop out of school and have higher rates of drug and alcohol abuse, delinquency, and abnormal sexual behaviors (Landgraf et al. 2013). This shows the importance in the support and treatments child with FAS need. As children with FAS get older, the long term implications not only follow them to their adult life but also cause other problems. They may have mental health problems, become victims of crime, get into trouble with the law, or may not be able to live on their own. They may not be able to work which also means even if they have the ability to work, they do not have the resources to. The problems with social ability also may affect their potential to have intimate relationships. Treatments Treatments can be very important in helping those with FAS, so they are able to cope with daily living. According to the National Organization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (2014) home intervention and early school intervention are important to help overcome issues an individual may be having. There are many services for individuals with FAS these include prenatal, birth to age 3, children 3-6 and school age, adolescents, and adults. Prenatal services are targeted at the mother; physicians should provide women with information about the effects of drinking during pregnancy. Since early intervention is so important for children with FAS a physician can recommend part C in IDEA. This allows for children birth to age 3 at risk of later developmental delay to receive services before meeting criteria eligibility. A stable and nurturing environment is critical for these children and so the family needs to be educated about the importance of caregiver attachment. (NOFAS) Once a child reaches the age of three, early intervention services stop and families are refereed to preschool handicapped programs or special needs preschool through Part B of IDEA. Unlike Part C, a child must be eligible for this program to receive services. This becomes a problem for some children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome because few meet the criteria. Categories they may qualify for include other health impairments, behavior disorder, or learning disorder. This allows for services such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech and language therapy, or social skills training (NOFAS). Adolescents with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome may have more prominent behavioral and mental health issues, so parents should not dismiss concerns they have. Adolescents with FAS miss out on skills like observational learning or basic maturity so vocational and transitional services are important. Giving them explicit instruction along with lifestyle support is important while in school to increase the possibility of a better outcome as an adult. Open communication and close supervision is incredibly important since adolescents with FAS often do not know appropriate boundaries or how to read subtle social cues. As an adult it may be difficult for those with FAS to receive services unless they have met the eligibility criteria before the age of 22. Adults living with FAS may qualify for Social Security Disability Benefits, Medicaid, and Section 8 Housing subsidies. (NOFAS) It is important at any age in the lifespan to have a routine for those living with FAS. The National Organization of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (2014) gives strategies for handling symptoms at each stage of life for those living with FAS. For infants, seeing specialists in areas is suggested to help with delays or a nutritionist for poor weight gain. Toddlers who are distracted easily may need a routine established or specific structure. School age children who have problems making and keeping friends may need to be paired with a child who is a year or two younger and need activities to be short and exciting. Parents of adolescence who are being victimized need to monitor the activities the children are engaging in. Adults living with FAS may also have difficulty obtaining or keeping jobs so looking into trade schools job training programs may be beneficial for them. (NOFAS) Although no studies have been done to see how play therapy can help children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, research has been done with children who have similar characteristics and behaviors; this includes but not limited to low self-esteem, aggression, and hyperactivity. This allows practitioners to help children with FAS (Liles et al. 2009). â€Å"Develop a more positive self-concept, assume greater self-responsibility, become more self-directing, become more self-accepting, become more self-reliant, engage in self-determined decision making, experience a feeling of control, become sensitive to the process of coping, develop an internal source of evaluation, and become more trusting of himself/herself† are recommendations during play therapy given by Liles for children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Conclusion Although, some say an occasional glass of wine won’t affect your baby, the best way to avoid FAS is to refrain from drinking while pregnant. Educating women and men on the risks of prenatal alcohol exposure is important. Medical practitioners should also be educated on new information that is found regarding Fetal Alcohol Syndrome so they can pass the information along to clients. For women who are trying to get pregnant refraining from drinking is crucial because the early stages of development are the most impacted by alcohol exposure. Individuals affected with FAS will have to deal with it their whole lives. Although treatments are available, the disorder is not curable. Early diagnosis is important so that support measures can be taken in the individuals’ environment which may help to avoid problems later in life. As information becomes available and technology increases more can be studied about Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.